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Study the male and female reproductive systems with the structure of the testis and ovary, spermatogenesis and oogenesis with their hormonal control, the menstrual and oestrous cycles, and fertilisation through implantation, placenta formation, parturition and lactation.
Read articleUnderstand double fertilisation and triple fusion, the development of endosperm, embryo, seed and fruit, the difference between albuminous and non-albuminous seeds and true and false fruits, and apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony and dispersal.
Read articleLearn the structure of the microsporangium and development of pollen grains, the megasporangium and formation of the embryo sac, types of pollination with adaptations for wind, water and insects, and how artificial hybridisation is done.
Read articleLocate the major human endocrine glands and the controlling role of the hypothalamus and pituitary, learn the hormones of the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gut and gonads, how hormones act and are regulated by feedback, and the disorders caused by too much or too little hormone.
Read articleClassify neurons and follow how a nerve impulse is generated and conducted, learn the organisation of the human nervous system and the parts of the brain and spinal cord, and see how impulses travel along myelinated fibres and across synapses.
Read articleLearn the types of movement and the human skeleton, the structure of skeletal muscle and the sliding filament theory, the types of joints, and disorders of the muscular and skeletal systems.
Read articleCompare ammonotelic, ureotelic and uricotelic animals, learn the human excretory system and nephron, the steps of urine formation and the counter-current mechanism, hormonal control of the kidney, other excretory organs, and kidney disorders with dialysis and transplantation.
Read articleExplore the structure of the human heart and blood vessels, the cardiac cycle with stroke volume, cardiac output and the ECG, double circulation and the regulation of heartbeat and blood pressure, and disorders of the circulatory system.
Read articleLearn what blood plasma contains and what red cells, white cells and platelets do, how the ABO and Rh systems govern transfusion and pregnancy, and the composition and roles of lymph and the lymphatic system.
Read articleLearn the human respiratory system and how gases are exchanged in the alveoli, how oxygen and carbon dioxide travel in blood, respiratory volumes, capacities and the control of breathing, and disorders of the respiratory system.
Read articleLearn hypogeal, epigeal and viviparous germination, differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation, the phases of growth and ways to measure growth rate, and the sources, roles and uses of plant growth regulators.
Read articleLearn the types of respiration and the steps of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and electron transport system with ATP yield, fermentation, oxidative phosphorylation and amphibolic pathways, and how to calculate respiratory quotients.
Read articleFollow the Calvin cycle step by step, understand Kranz anatomy and the C4 pathway, compare C3 and C4 plants, explain photorespiration and the dual role of RuBisCO, and apply Blackman's law of limiting factors.
Read articleUnderstand photosynthetic pigments and the difference between absorption and action spectra, the light reactions with photosystems I and II and cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation, and how chemiosmosis makes ATP in chloroplasts.
Read articleLearn the phases of the cell cycle, the stages and significance of mitosis and meiosis, and the key differences between the two kinds of cell division.
Read articleClassify carbohydrates from monosaccharides to polysaccharides, understand amino acids and the four levels of protein structure, classify lipids and describe fats and oils, and learn how enzymes are classified, what cofactors do and what affects enzyme activity.
Read articleExplore the nucleus, mitochondria and plastids, the endomembrane system, ribosomes and microbodies, the cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella and centrioles, and the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and between plant and animal cells.
Read articleLearn the cell theory and the general plan of a eukaryotic cell, the structure of the plant cell wall with plasmodesmata, the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane, and how passive transport, facilitated diffusion and active transport differ.
Read articleStudy the digestive, circulatory and respiratory systems of the frog, its excretory, nervous and reproductive systems, and how the frog's organ systems reflect the basic vertebrate body plan.
Read articleClassify meristems by origin and position, describe simple and complex permanent tissues and their functions, and compare the internal structure of dicot and monocot roots, stems and leaves as seen in labelled sections.
Read articleUnderstand the parts of a typical flower, floral symmetry and aestivation, types of placentation, cohesion and adhesion in stamens and carpels, and the differences between racemose and cymose inflorescences.
Read articleClassify roots and their modifications for storage, breathing and support, recognise underground, sub-aerial and aerial stem modifications, and understand leaf parts, venation, phyllotaxy and leaf modifications including insectivorous plants.
Read articleTell chordates from non-chordates by the notochord, meet the protochordates Urochordata and Cephalochordata, learn the seven vertebrate classes with examples, and compare the adaptations of aquatic, amphibious and terrestrial vertebrates.
Read articleLearn how levels of organisation, body plans, symmetry, germ layers and body cavities are used to classify animals, and the key features and examples of ten non-chordate phyla from Porifera to Hemichordata.
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