Study notes · Free to read
Chapter-by-chapter notes written straight from the curriculum. Read free, then practise the same chapter with an AI-generated quiz.
Latest posts
Filter by board, class, and subject to find notes for exactly what you're studying.
Follow the chromosomes, spindle and nuclear membrane through prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, see how plant and animal cells differ in centrioles and cytokinesis, understand meiosis as reduction division, and compare mitosis and meiosis in growth, repair and reproduction.
Read articleLearn the parts of a chromosome — chromatin, chromatids, centromere and arms — and what it is made of, understand genes as stretches of DNA, follow the cell cycle through G1, S, G2 and M, and tell homologous chromosomes, haploid and diploid numbers apart with clear worked counts.
Read articleDraw the structure of acetic acid and name its functional group, learn its vinegar smell and why pure acid turns into glacial acetic acid when cooled, write its reactions with litmus, alkalis, carbonates and alcohols, and see where acetic acid is used from pickles to rubber plantations.
Read articlePrepare ethanol by hydrolysing an alkyl halide, learn its physical properties and why it boils so much higher than a hydrocarbon of similar mass, write its reactions with oxygen, sodium, acetic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, and tell denatured alcohol, methylated spirit and spurious alcohol apart.
Read articlePrepare methane, ethane, ethene and ethyne with balanced equations, compare complete and incomplete combustion, follow substitution of alkanes by chlorine, see why methane is a greenhouse gas, and write the addition reactions of ethene and ethyne and the uses of all four hydrocarbons.
Read articleLearn what makes a homologous series, how boiling point and physical state change steadily along the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes, how to spot nine functional groups in a structure, and how to write IUPAC and common names using the longest chain and lowest number rules.
Read articleUnderstand the tetravalency and catenation that let carbon form so many compounds, represent single, double and triple bonds, tell straight chains from branched chains and rings including benzene, draw alkanes, alkenes and alkynes up to five carbons, and find chain and position isomers.
Read articleFollow sulphur through the Contact Process to sulphuric acid, write the reactions of the dilute acid as a dibasic acid, see the concentrated acid act as an oxidising and dehydrating agent, understand why its non-volatile nature drives out other acids, and test for sulphate ions.
Read articlePrepare nitric acid in an all-glass apparatus and see why it turns yellow, follow Ostwald's process from ammonia to nitric acid, understand its oxidising action on copper, carbon and sulphur, write its acidic reactions, and identify nitrates with the brown ring test.
Read articleWrite the equations for ammonia burning in oxygen and for its catalytic oxidation over platinum, see ammonia act as a reducing agent with hot copper oxide and lead oxide, compare its reactions with chlorine in excess and in short supply, and review aqueous ammonia with acids and metal salts, its uses and its tests.
Read articlePrepare ammonia from ammonium chloride and slaked lime with the right apparatus, drying agent and collection method, make it from nitrides and other ammonium salts, understand the conditions chosen for Haber's process, and explain the density, solubility and fountain experiment of ammonia.
Read articlePrepare hydrogen chloride in the laboratory with every condition and precaution, show it is heavier than air and extremely soluble through the fountain experiment, prevent back suction when making hydrochloric acid, write its acidic reactions, and learn aqua regia and the tests for chloride ions.
Read articleFollow bauxite through Baeyer's process to pure alumina, see how the Hall Heroult cell turns alumina into molten aluminium, learn what cryolite, fluorspar, coke and the graphite electrodes each do, and finish with the composition and uses of stainless steel, duralumin, brass, bronze and solder.
Read articleConvert concentrated ores into oxides by roasting and calcination, reduce the oxides of copper, lead, iron and zinc with hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide, understand why aluminium and magnesium oxides need electrolysis, and see how electrorefining finishes the job.
Read articleLearn the difference between a mineral and an ore, what gangue, flux and slag are, the ores of iron, aluminium and zinc with their formulae, how ores are concentrated by washing, magnets and froth flotation, and why crushing and concentrating come before any metal is extracted.
Read articleSee how an object is coated with nickel or silver by electrolysis, why nickel sulphate and sodium argentocyanide are the chosen electrolytes, how impure copper is purified by electrorefining, and why industry depends on both processes for everything from taps to electrical wire.
Read articleFollow ions as they migrate to the electrodes, learn the three factors that decide which ion is discharged, use the activity series to predict products, and work through the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, acidified water, and copper sulphate with platinum and with copper electrodes.
Read articleSort substances into strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes and non-electrolytes, connect that to whether they contain ions, molecules or both, learn the exact meanings of electrolysis, anode, cathode, oxidation and reduction, and see how conduction through a solution differs from conduction through a wire.
Read articleTurn percentage composition or combining masses into an empirical formula, use vapour density or molecular mass to reach the molecular formula, and solve mass-to-mass, mass-to-volume and limiting-reactant problems from balanced equations with a layout that checks itself.
Read articleUnderstand the mole, Avogadro's number, gram atoms and gram molecules, derive why molecular mass is twice the vapour density, and move confidently between mass, moles, number of particles and gas volume at STP through a set of fully worked problems.
Read articleLearn Gay Lussac's law of combining volumes and Avogadro's law, use the formation of hydrogen chloride, ammonia and nitric oxide to prove that hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are diatomic, apply the molar volume of 22.4 litres at STP, and solve gas volume problems step by step.
Read articleSee why ammonia turns copper solutions inky blue and why warm alkali drives ammonia out of ammonium salts, understand amphoteric oxides and hydroxides of aluminium, zinc and lead, write their reactions with caustic alkalis, and run a complete scheme that identifies eight common cations.
Read articleLearn the colours of iron, copper, zinc, calcium, magnesium and lead salts, follow what sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide do when added drop by drop and then in excess, and use the colour and behaviour of each hydroxide precipitate to identify the metal ion in an unknown solution.
Read articleDefine a salt through neutralisation, tell normal, acid, basic and complex salts apart, learn the six laboratory methods for preparing normal salts, and use solubility to pick the right method and write its balanced equation for any salt you are asked to make.
Read article