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Study the structure of mitochondria and why they are the cell's powerhouse, tell chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts apart, compare ribosomes and learn microbodies, cytoskeleton, cilia and centrioles, and describe the nucleus and types of chromosomes.
Read articleUnderstand the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane and how diffusion, osmosis and active transport differ, learn the layers of the plant cell wall, follow proteins through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, and see how lysosomes and vacuoles work.
Read articleUnderstand cell theory and why the idea that every cell comes from a pre-existing cell completed it, see why the cell is life's basic unit and how size and shape follow function, compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and study the parts of a bacterial cell.
Read articleSee how cells, tissues, organs and organ systems divide labour in animals, describe the external features of the Indian frog and its sexual dimorphism, trace its digestive and respiratory systems, and study its circulatory, excretory, neural and reproductive systems.
Read articleRelate the parts of the epidermal tissue system to their functions, distinguish ground and vascular tissue systems and types of vascular bundles, and compare the internal structure of dicot and monocot roots, stems and leaves.
Read articleTell racemose from cymose inflorescences and describe flowers by symmetry, ovary position and whorls, learn aestivation, placentation, androecium and gynoecium, write floral formulae and diagrams, and study fruits, seeds and family Solanaceae.
Read articleDistinguish tap, fibrous and adventitious roots and the regions of a root tip, relate root modifications to their functions, identify stem modifications and tell them from roots, and classify leaves by venation, type and phyllotaxy.
Read articleUse the three basic chordate characters to separate Urochordata, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata, distinguish jawless, cartilaginous and bony fishes, identify amphibians and reptiles and the importance of the amniote egg, and compare birds with mammals.
Read articleIdentify sponges, cnidarians and comb jellies, distinguish flatworms from roundworms, compare annelids, arthropods and molluscs, and describe echinoderms and hemichordates, with named examples of each non-chordate phylum.
Read articleRank animals by level of organisation, classify them by body symmetry, tell diploblastic from triploblastic animals and coelomates from pseudocoelomates and acoelomates, and use segmentation and the notochord to separate chordates from non-chordates.
Read articleSee how pteridophytes advanced beyond bryophytes, why heterospory points towards seeds, what makes gymnosperms naked-seeded plants using Cycas and Pinus, and how angiosperms differ and split into monocots and dicots.
Read articleCompare artificial, natural and phylogenetic classification, distinguish green, brown and red algae by pigments, stored food and flagella, see why algae matter economically and ecologically, and learn why bryophytes are the amphibians of the plant kingdom.
Read articleLearn the defining features of fungi and their nutrition, distinguish Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes, understand what places organisms in Plantae and Animalia, and compare viruses, viroids and lichens.
Read articleSee why the two-kingdom system failed and which five criteria define the five-kingdom system, classify Monera by shape and nutrition, understand Mycoplasma and bacterial reproduction, and tell apart the major groups of Protista.
Read articleUnderstand biodiversity and why classification is needed, write binomial names correctly using the rules of nomenclature, place organisms in the taxonomic hierarchy from species to kingdom, and tell taxonomy from systematics with the biological species concept.
Read articleExplain benzene's structure through resonance and delocalised orbitals, apply Huckel's rule to test aromaticity, name substituted benzenes and prepare benzene, follow electrophilic substitution mechanisms, and predict ortho, para and meta directing effects.
Read articleName alkenes and alkynes and their cis-trans isomers, prepare them from alkynes, alkyl halides, dihalides, alcohols and calcium carbide, predict addition products with Markovnikov's rule and the peroxide effect, and use ozonolysis and the acidity of terminal alkynes.
Read articleClassify hydrocarbons and name isomeric alkanes, prepare alkanes by hydrogenation, reduction, the Wurtz reaction and decarboxylation, explain free-radical halogenation and other reactions of alkanes, and compare staggered and eclipsed conformations of ethane.
Read articleChoose purification methods such as sublimation, crystallisation and different kinds of distillation and extraction, apply chromatography and calculate Rf values, detect elements with Lassaigne's test, and calculate percentage composition and empirical formulae from estimation data.
Read articleIdentify structural isomers and meet stereoisomerism, compare homolytic and heterolytic fission and rank radicals, carbocations and carbanions, spot electrophiles and nucleophiles with curved arrows, and apply inductive, resonance, electromeric and hyperconjugation effects.
Read articleUnderstand carbon's tetravalence, catenation and hybridisation, move between structural, condensed, bond-line and three-dimensional formulas, classify organic compounds and recognise functional groups, and write IUPAC names from structures and back.
Read articleBalance redox equations in acidic and basic media by the oxidation-number method and the ion-electron method, then see how redox reactions drive a galvanic cell and use standard electrode potentials to compare oxidising and reducing agents.
Read articleIdentify oxidation and reduction by oxygen and hydrogen transfer and by electron transfer, name the oxidant and reductant, assign oxidation numbers including fractional averages, and classify redox reactions while predicting displacement from the activity series.
Read articlePredict whether salt solutions are acidic, basic or neutral from hydrolysis, calculate buffer pH with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, relate solubility product to molar solubility and predict precipitation, and use the common-ion effect in qualitative analysis.
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