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Classify acids and bases by the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis concepts, use the ionic product of water to find pH and pOH of strong acids and bases, calculate degree of ionisation with Ostwald's dilution law and the common-ion effect, and relate Ka and Kb.
Read articleUnderstand dynamic equilibrium in physical processes, write Kc and Kp expressions and convert between them, use K and the reaction quotient Q to predict extent and direction, and apply Le Chatelier's principle to processes such as ammonia manufacture.
Read articleSee why enthalpy alone cannot predict spontaneity, calculate entropy changes and apply the second law, use Gibbs energy to decide when a reaction becomes spontaneous, and relate standard Gibbs energy change to the equilibrium constant.
Read articleFind internal energy and enthalpy changes from bomb and constant-pressure calorimeter data, calculate reaction enthalpies from standard enthalpies of formation, use Hess's law for reactions that cannot be measured directly, and apply the main types of enthalpy including the Born-Haber cycle.
Read articleClassify systems and properties, calculate work in reversible and irreversible isothermal expansion with chemistry's sign convention, apply the first law as dU = q + w, and relate enthalpy change to internal energy change for gaseous reactions.
Read articleLearn the postulates of molecular orbital theory and how bonding and antibonding orbitals form, build MO diagrams for H2 to F2 and their ions, use bond order to predict stability, bond length and magnetism, and explain hydrogen bonding.
Read articleUse VSEPR theory to predict shapes and bond angles with and without lone pairs, explain covalent bonds by orbital overlap and tell sigma from pi bonds, and apply sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d and sp3d2 hybridisation to molecules such as CH4, NH3, PCl5 and SF6.
Read articleDraw Lewis structures and use formal charge to choose the best one, explain ionic bonding with lattice enthalpy, compare bond length, angle, enthalpy and order with resonance, and predict dipole moments and covalent character using Fajans' rules.
Read articlePredict trends in atomic and ionic radii and order isoelectronic ions, explain irregularities in ionisation and electron gain enthalpy, use electronegativity to judge bonds and oxides, and explain anomalous second-period behaviour and diagonal relationships.
Read articleFollow periodic classification from triads and octaves to Mendeleev's and the modern periodic law, locate an element's period and group from its configuration, name elements beyond atomic number 100, and classify elements into s, p, d and f blocks.
Read articleSee how de Broglie's relation and the uncertainty principle replace orbits with orbitals, assign the four quantum numbers, read the shapes and nodes of s, p and d orbitals, and write electronic configurations of atoms and ions.
Read articleLearn how experiments revealed electrons, protons and neutrons, compare the Thomson and Rutherford models, relate frequency, wavelength and energy of light, and use Bohr's model to calculate hydrogen orbit energies and spectral lines.
Read articleApply the laws of chemical combination and Dalton's atomic theory, calculate atomic, molecular and formula masses with the mole concept, find percentage composition and empirical formulae, and solve stoichiometry, limiting reagent and concentration problems.
Read articleSee where chemistry shows up in daily life and industry, classify matter by state and by composition, convert units with the factor-label method, apply significant figures and scientific notation, and tell accuracy from precision.
Read articleUnderstand reflection at rigid and free boundaries, see how standing waves form with nodes and antinodes, derive the harmonics of strings and of open and closed pipes, and calculate beat frequency from two close notes.
Read articleDerive the speed of a wave on a stretched string, see what sets the speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases, apply the principle of superposition, and find the resultant amplitude of two waves from their phase difference.
Read articleSee how waves carry energy without carrying matter, tell transverse from longitudinal waves and the media that carry them, read amplitude, wavelength, wave number, angular frequency and phase from a wave equation, and use v = f lambda.
Read articleDerive kinetic and potential energy in SHM and show total energy stays constant, find the period of a loaded spring, derive the period of a simple pendulum with its approximations, and combine springs in series and parallel.
Read articleSee why the projection of uniform circular motion is simple harmonic, derive velocity and acceleration in SHM and where they peak, apply the force law F = -kx, and compare displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs and phases.
Read articleTell periodic from oscillatory motion and find period and frequency, build periodic motion from sines and cosines, identify amplitude, angular frequency, phase and phase constant in simple harmonic motion, and write SHM equations.
Read articleCount degrees of freedom for monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecules, use the law of equipartition to find internal energy, predict Cp, Cv and gamma for different gases, and relate mean free path to molecular size and number density.
Read articleLearn the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases, use the perfect gas equation and find work done in compressing a gas, derive gas pressure from mean square speed, and connect temperature to the rms speed of molecules.
Read articleState the second law of thermodynamics in Kelvin-Planck and Clausius forms, tell reversible from irreversible processes, trace the four steps of the Carnot cycle on a P-V diagram, and derive why Carnot efficiency sets the upper limit.
Read articleUse state variables and the ideal gas equation of state, derive Mayer's relation Cp - Cv = R, sketch isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, isochoric and cyclic processes on a P-V diagram, and calculate work in isothermal and adiabatic processes.
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